Learning design isn’t brain surgery – but it is brain science.
And knowing a little about what’s behind that science will make you a better L&D professional.
Here are five fascinating psychological phenomena that I feel are particularly relevant – and useful – for instructional design.
Psychological concepts instructional designers should know
1. The forgetting curve
The forgetting curve emphasizes the importance of repetition when learning.
Created by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus between 1880 and 1885, the curve illustrates how time influences our memory.
Ebbinghaus conducted a series of tests (on himself) that had him learning a series of meaningless three-letter sequences (DRA, FHO, FIH, etc.). After learning the sequences, he then tested how well he could recall them after different periods.
The results led to a graph, similar to the above image. This was an important discovery because it was the first time anyone had mapped out memory loss over time.
So, what we can see here is that the first time we learn something, the information falls out of our brains at a rapid rate. In fact, it only takes a day or two before most of the information is lost:
- 50% is gone within a day
- up to 90% is gone within seven days
Incredible, right?
However, revising the information strengthens memory retention, and the speed of knowledge loss slows dramatically. The more we repeat the process, the longer we can go before having to revisit the information to refresh it.
What does this mean for instructional design?
Well, your students are likely to forget everything they’ve learned unless you incorporate repetition and revision strategies.
But there’s more! The way the information is presented affects retention too. So, bear these things in mind when designing learning experiences.
Here are some tips to help you:
- Have students revisit key concepts over time.
- Use interactive review methods to boost retention. Quizzes, flashcards, interactive games, etc.
- Cheat sheets, job aids, and quick reference guides will support on-the-job applications.
- Information that has been presented clearly and logically is much easier to remember.
- The stronger the memory, the more we retain it. Training experiences must be impactful and engaging to generate stronger memories.
2. Spacing effect
The spacing effect is closely related to the forgetting curve. Based on over a century’s worth of research (Ebbinghaus, Murre & Dros, and more), it proves that learning is more effective when it is spaced out rather than crammed into one session.
My son regularly brings poems home from school, which he must learn by heart.
Usually, I break it down, and we focus on learning one line a day over two weeks. Each line builds upon the previous one until he can recall the entire poem fairly effortlessly. This method typically results in top marks and a very happy child!
One time, for varying reasons, we ended up having to learn an entire poem the night before he was expected to present it. As you can probably guess, the results were not as successful.
Although he could recall some of it, he missed out a couple of lines and mixed up the sequence.
Lesson learned. We now always make sure we learn it gradually.
So, how do we stop this from becoming a problem in instructional design?
One of the best ways is to use a method called spaced retrieval. This consists of two combined strategies:
- Spaced practice: Where learning is spread over multiple spaced-out sessions instead of one.
- Retrieval practice: Where memory recall is tested at increasing intervals using assessments, quizzes, or practical activities.
When implementing this method, use cumulative assessment. This is where periodic knowledge tests cover both new and previously learned material.
Finally, don’t be afraid to assign homework!
Getting students to revisit the material in their own time and at their own pace gives them a chance to strengthen their memory retention.
A good support for spaced retrieval is the use of microlearning, where content is delivered in short, digestible formats. Learners can access the content on demand and revisit key concepts whenever they choose.
3. Switch cost effect
The switch cost effect is something all of us battle daily. Especially those who work in busy, distracting environments.
The phenomenon refers to the cognitive and productivity costs associated with switching from one task to another. Otherwise known as multitasking.
But here’s the thing.
Multitasking is one of the biggest pieces of misinformation out there.
Despite what some people may tell you, our brains are simply incapable of focusing on more than one thing at once.
A far more accurate term is task-switching, where we move rapidly from one task to another. On the surface, this seems more productive because you’re getting loads of stuff done.
However, this couldn’t be further from the truth.
Studies have shown that task-switching reduces productivity by as much as 40% and increases error rate by as much as 50%. And the problems don’t end there.
One study performed by the University of California, Irvine, concluded that once you have been distracted from a task, it takes a whopping 23 minutes to fully refocus.
If your training session is only an hour long, that’s an entire third of it wasted. Three distractions and you’ve lost the focus for good.
While the switch cost effect will never be eliminated from our daily lives, you can do a lot to minimize it in your training design.
Some steps to follow include:
- Modular content: Break down learning content into manageable steps that must be completed sequentially. This focuses the learner on one subject at a time without getting fatigued or distracted.
- Closed learning paths: Prevent learners from skipping lessons or bouncing between modules. Gate content so that it’s only released when the previous module or lesson has been completed.
- Ditch irrelevant content: Fun facts are, well, fun, but are they relevant? Don’t overload learners with unnecessary details. Each piece of content should contribute to the learning objectives – not inspire the individual to disappear down an investigative Google rabbit hole.
4. Social loafing
No, I’m not referring to groups of teenagers hanging around a street corner. Though, the term certainly conjures up images of such.
What social loafing refers to is the tendency of some individuals to put in less effort when working in a group compared to working individually.
This isn’t necessarily a conscious decision. Most people who do end up social loafing aren’t trying to skirt their responsibilities or push them onto others. Instead, it tends to be a psychological and situational response.
For example, highly introverted or independently-minded individuals are more likely to engage in social loafing. Or, motivation around the subject can lead disinterested individuals to be less engaged. Lack of communication can be another contributing factor.
Although social loafing is generally unintentional, it still presents significant challenges in collaborative learning environments.
Besides the unfairly balanced workload, social loafing leads to:
- A suppression of creative and innovative ideas and thoughts.
- Increased likelihood of conflict.
- Reduced individual accountability.
Training must, therefore, be designed so that each individual plays an accountable role where their contributions can be clearly distinguished from the rest.
To do this, you must define the roles and responsibilities of each team member. Furthermore, these roles must ensure that each individual understands how it contributes to the wider group’s success.
Aside from the group’s objectives and goals, set individual goals within it. When each person has their own milestones to achieve, they are more likely to put in the effort and stay accountable.
Finally, some individuals may feel lost, behind, or unclear on what they have to do and afraid to speak up in a group setting. So, provide one-on-one support alongside coaching the group as a whole.
5. Primacy and recency effects
Lastly, we have the primacy and recency effects. And, if you’ve ever grappled with a mental shopping list, you’ll be familiar with it.
Why is it that the moment you set foot in the store, you can remember the first and last items, but not the ones in between?
It’s all down to our brain’s capacity to retain information:
- Primacy effect: You remember the first couple of grocery list items because they were the first ones you committed to memory.
- Recency effect: The last items on the list were likely the most recent things you thought of adding before leaving for the store.
The same is true for a learning environment. Information presented in the middle portion of a training session is the stuff that is least likely to be remembered.
Remember, humans have limited attention spans. So, during the first 15 minutes or so, you have full attention. Then, it starts to naturally wane as the session progresses, only snapping back to full focus when you start wrapping up.
However, rather than viewing these effects as negative, use them to your advantage.
First, know how long you have your student’s full focus. Known as the prime times, these short windows are where learning has the most impact:
- Prime time 1: The first ten to 15 minutes of a session.
- Prime time 2: The final five to ten minutes of a session.
With this in mind:
- Structure your content strategically. Present new concepts or crucial information during the prime time slots.
- Use the middle section to reinforce existing knowledge through practice and application.
- Employ active learning during the middle section to maintain engagement. Retrieval practice and hands-on activities, for instance.
- Use shorter training sessions or microlearning to maximize the available prime time.
Final thoughts
These psychological phenomena are not just interesting theories; they’re proven concepts that you can turn to your advantage.
Though, it’s safe to say that as instructional designers, we’re up against a lot!
But knowledge is power, and knowing which psychological challenges you are likely to face will help you design better, stronger, and more memorable experiences.
By Janette Bonnet
Janette Bonnet is an experienced L&D professional who is passionate about exploring instructional design techniques, trends, and innovations.